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BONE TUMORS IN CATS AND DOGS
Overview
Bone tumors can involve either the appendicular (long bone) or axial (flat bone) skeleton. These tumors are classified as either primary (i.e., arise directly in bone) or secondary (i.e., spread from an adjacent site, such as multiple myeloma of the bone marrow, or metastasize from a distant site, such as transitional cell carcinoma of the urinary bladder). The four primary bone tumors are osteosarcoma, chondrosarcoma, fibrosarcoma, and hemangiosarcoma. Osteosarcoma is the most common primary bone tumor and accounts for over 95% of all bone tumors. In dogs, appendicular osteosarcoma is a highly metastatic disease and curative-intent treatment involves surgical resection of the tumor followed by chemotherapy to minimize the risk of tumor cells spreading (or metastasizing) to other areas, particularly the lungs and other bone. The prognosis for cats and dogs with primary bone tumors is guarded and depends on the tumor type and affected bone.
Causes and Risk Factors
The majority of primary bone tumors, particularly osteosarcoma, arise spontaneously with no known or apparent cause. Scottish Deerhounds are genetically predisposed to developing osteosarcoma and this tumor also occurs frequently in other large breed dogs, particularly the Rottweiler. Large or giant, and particularly tall, dogs are at a greater risk for the development of osteosarcoma compared to the general dog population, although small dogs (less than 15 kg) can also be affected. Older dogs are most commonly affected; however, bone tumors can occur in young dogs as well.
The most commonly implicated cause of primary bone tumors is previous bone damage. The types of bone damage which have been linked with the development of primary bone tumors include fractures, orthopedic implants (used for fracture repair and total hip replacement), radiation therapy, and bone diseases (i.e., benign bone tumors, bone cysts, and infarcts [areas of bone without a blood supply]). It must be stressed, however, that the risk of developing a bone tumor after fracture, fracture repair, or total hip replacement is very small and the vast majority of primary bone tumors develop spontaneously with no apparent predisposing cause.
Incidence and Prevalence
In dogs, osteosarcoma is relatively common and accounts for up to 7% of all tumors in dogs and over 95% of all primary bone tumors. In the appendicular skeleton, osteosarcoma occurs twice as frequently in the forelimbs than the hind limbs. Osteosarcoma occurs most often in the distal radius (adjacent to the carpal or wrist joint) and proximal humerus (adjacent to the shoulder joint). Chondrosarcoma is the second most common primary tumor of the axial and appendicular skeleton. However, compared to osteosarcoma, chondrosarcoma is uncommon. Other primary and secondary bone tumors are rare.
Primary bone tumors are uncommon in cats. Unlike dogs, where the majority of primary bone tumors are malignant, up to a third of feline bone tumors are benign. Osteosarcoma is also the most common bone tumor in cats, but the biologic behavior (or clinical course) of this tumor type is less aggressive than in dogs.
Signs and Symptoms
Lameness and swelling of the affected bone are the most common presenting complaints in cats and dogs with tumors of the appendicular skeleton. The onset and degree of lameness is variable: a slow, insidious onset of a mild to moderate weight-bearing lameness is more common, but an acute, non-weight-bearing lameness is possible if a fracture occurs through the tumor (i.e., pathologic fracture) (Figure 1). Dogs with metastasis to the lungs may present with a diffuse swelling of all 4 limbs (hypertrophic osteopathy), generalized weakness, or respiratory (breathing) difficulties. Systemic illness is rare in cats and dogs with primary bone tumors that have not metastasized.
Figure 1. Radiograph of a dog with an osteosarcoma of the radius and ulna (lower arm bones). The tumor has caused a reaction along the outside of the bone, and the bones are angled at the site of the fracture.
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The clinical signs associated with primary bone tumors of the axial skeleton depend on the bone involved. In most cases, a swelling or mass is the first sign of a tumor, particularly the skull, jaw, and ribs. Other signs may include difficulty eating with jaw tumors (see oral tumors), neurologic signs with skull or vertebral tumors (i.e., seizures or wobbly gait), respiratory difficulties with rib tumors, and lameness with tumors of either the scapula (shoulder blade) or pelvis.
Clinical signs associated with secondary bone tumors depend on the bone affected. However, differentiating primary bone tumors from secondary bone tumors can be difficult unless the primary tumor causes clinical signs (i.e., urinary difficulties in dogs with tumors of either the urinary bladder or prostate).
When To Seek Veterinary Surgical Advice
Surgery is important in the management of all bone tumors and advice from a veterinary surgeon is recommended for all cats and dogs with a suspected primary or secondary bone tumor. For appendicular tumors, limb amputation is considered the gold-standard treatment, although some hospitals can offer alternatives to amputation such as limb-sparing surgery. In addition to limb-sparing surgery, advanced surgical training is required for the management of cats and dogs with tumors of the jaw, skull, vertebra, scapula, ribs, and pelvis. To find an ACVS veterinary surgeon in your area, click here: Find a Surgeon
Diagnostic Tests
Physical and orthopedic examination, blood tests (complete blood count and serum biochemistry), radiographs of the affected bone, chest radiographs or computed tomography (CT) scans, and bone scan are recommended for dogs with a suspected primary bone tumor. Physical examination is necessary to assess general health status and identify any other concomitant problems. Orthopedic examination is important to identify the affected bone, rule-out other causes of lameness (particularly cranial cruciate ligament rupture, hip dysplasia, and neurologic disease), and evaluate the potential for adapting to life on three legs if limb amputation is being considered. Blood tests are recommended to assess general health status as many cats and dogs with primary bone tumors are older and may have other problems which need to be considered when developing a treatment plan. Also, one of the enzymes assessed in the serum biochemistry screen (alkaline phosphatase) can provide information on postoperative prognosis. If limb-sparing is being considered, then radiographs, bone scans, and advanced imaging (i.e., CT or magnetic resonance imaging) of the limb should be considered to evaluate the extent of local tumor involvement and plan the limb-sparing surgery (Figure 2A and 2B).
Figure 2A. Radiograph of a dog with an osteosarcoma of the radius. The bone in the lower half of the leg looks "moth eaten" from all of the bony reaction and destruction.
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Figure 2B. Bone scan of the dog in figure 2A. The bright white area indicates areas of excessive bone activity (remodeling) which, in this case, is caused by the tumor. This bone scan shows that the tumor is extending up the bone towards the elbow joint. The elbow and shoulder joints are also white (but less so than the tumor) because of some increase in bone activity from arthritis.
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Biopsy of the suspected bone tumor is rarely indicated as surgical treatment (i.e., limb amputation or limb-sparing surgery) is not changed by knowledge of the tumor type. Biopsy is recommended if the presentation is not typical (i.e., small dog, middle aged, multiple lesions, lesions the middle rather than the end of long bones, or systemic illness) or another disease process is suspected, such as fungal osteomyelitis, on the basis of presentation and either travel through or living in certain geographical regions.
Appendicular osteosarcoma is a highly malignant and metastatic disease in dogs. The lungs and other bone are the two most common metastatic sites, occurring in approximately 10% of dogs at the time of diagnosis (but up to 90% of dogs at the time of death). Chest radiographs or CT scans are necessary for the evaluation of metastasis to the lungs. The incidence of bone metastasis, which often does not cause clinical signs, is approximately the same as lung metastasis but has a much greater impact on management options as there is a high risk of fracture through the metastatic lesion as a result of increased weight bearing after limb amputation. A whole-body bone scan is the most effective technique to evaluate for the presence of metastatic disease in another bone, although nuclear medicine facilities are not be widely available (Figure 3). Whole-body radiographs are an alternative to bone scan but are more time consuming and costly, and metastases may be missed with radiographic evaluation because they may not be as sensitive for picking up bone changes as a bone scan.
Figure 3. A whole-body bone scan of a dog with a tumor in the prostate. The bone scan shows multiple bright white areas, indicating of wide spread metastasis to bone.
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Advanced imaging, particularly CT scans, are recommended for many tumors of the axial skeleton as the cross-sectional and 3-dimensional images provide better information for the surgeon to assess whether surgery is possible and, if so, the extent of surgery required to achieve a favorable outcome.
Differential Diagnoses
The differential diagnoses for dogs with a suspected primary bone tumor are secondary bone tumors, bacterial and fungal osteomyelitis (or bone infection), and atypical bone cysts. The most important and common of these differential diagnoses is fungal osteomyelitis. The types of fungi that can cause infection of bone (especially Coccidioides immitis and Blastomyces dermatitidis) only occur in certain geographical regions in North America. Living or traveling through these areas will increase the suspicion of fungal osteomyelitis. However, most dogs with fungal osteomyelitis can be distinguished from dogs with primary bone tumors as they are usually systemically ill (i.e., inappetent and lethargic with respiratory problems) and will often have bone involvement which is not typical of a primary bone tumor (i.e., multiple lesions and lesions in the middle rather than the ends of long bones) (Figure 4). A problem other than a primary bone tumor is extremely rare (less than 1%), especially if the age and size of the dog and clinical findings are consistent with a primary bone tumor.
Figure 4. Radiograph of the femur of a dog with fungal osteomyelitis. Unlike dogs with primary bone tumors, this dog was coughing and depressed and the bone lesion - a widened, thin walled area- is in the middle of the bone rather than either end.
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Complications Caused By The Disease
Disease-related complications can be divided into local and distant problems. Local complications are caused by the bone tumor and include lameness and, more importantly, fracture through the diseased and weakened bone. Pathologic fracture is painful and immediate treatment, with drugs and perhaps surgery, is necessary to minimize pain. Surgery includes limb amputation or, more rarely, fracture repair.
Distant problems are caused by metastasis (or spread of tumor cells) to other organs. Metastasis is more common in dogs with appendicular osteosarcoma, hemangiosarcoma, and chondrosarcoma. Metastasis is rare in dogs with axial tumors, except for osteosarcoma of the ribs, scapula or pelvis. Metastasis is rare in cats with primary bone tumors.
Metastasis to the lungs can cause inappetence and lethargy initially and, in the latter stages, respiratory problems (i.e., difficulty breathing, shortness of breath, and coughing) (Figure 5). Lung metastases can also cause an unusual and not fully understood disease called hypertrophic osteopathy, where the dog is lethargic, lame or will not rise, and has a swelling in all limbs, which may be painful. Chemotherapy is not effective in treating dogs with lung metastasis but, in specific and well-defined circumstances, surgical removal of lung metastases (known as metastatectomy) can significantly improve survival time and quality of life. The clinical signs associated with metastasis to other sites (i.e., other bone, kidneys, liver, intestines, brain, eye, etc) will depend on the site affected.
Figure 5. Chest radiograph of a dog that had a limb-sparing surgery performed 221 days beforehand for an osteosarcoma of the radius. The arrows indicate two metastatic tumors in the lungs. These two tumors were surgically removed and the dog lived another 294 days.
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Complications associated with axial bone tumors are usually local and dependent on the site affected. These can include difficulty eating in cats and dogs with jaw and skull tumors, seizures and blindness with skull tumors, spinal cord disease with vertebral tumors, breathing difficulties with rib tumors, and lameness with scapular and pelvic tumors. Metastasis is uncommon with axial tumors of the head and vertebra, but is relatively common in rib, scapular, and pelvic tumors.
Treatment Options
Treatment for primary bone tumors of the appendicular skeleton is divided into palliative and curative-intent. Palliative treatment is intended to provide pain control and improve quality of life but not necessarily prolong life. In contrast, the aim of curative-intent treatment is to provide a good quality of life while controlling the local tumor and minimizing the risk of metastasis in an effort to cure the tumor. However, it must be stressed that cure for dogs with appendicular osteosarcoma is achieved in less than 25% of cases.
Palliative treatment options include pain-killing drugs, radiation therapy, and surgery. Many drugs have pain-killing (or analgesic) properties but the degree of analgesia provided by these drugs can vary. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are usually effective initially, although stronger analgesic drugs (such as codeine, morphine, tramadol or fentanyl patches) or drug combinations may be required as the tumor progresses. Radiation therapy can be used to reduce pain and inflammation and can be used in combination with pain-killing drugs. The bone tumor is irradiated using various protocols; the most common are either once weekly radiation for 3 to 4 weeks or once monthly radiation. Lastly, the affected limb can be amputated if the bone tumor is very painful or fractured.
For dogs with appendicular osteosarcoma, curative-intent treatment is aimed at treating the local bone tumor and minimizing the risk of metastatic disease. Limb amputation is recommended for treatment of the local bone tumor (Figure 6a and Figure 6b). The vast majority of dogs will adapt very well after limb amputation, even if arthritic in other joints, overweight, or a large dog breed. The adaptation period is approximately 4 weeks and is improved if owners have a positive attitude towards their dog and its treatment. Limb-sparing surgery preserves the anatomy and function of the affected limb and is a viable alternative to limb amputation (Figures 7 and 8). A number of different limb-salvage techniques are now available, but most are only amenable to the distal radius (bone adjacent to the carpus or wrist). Non-surgical limb-sparing techniques, such as stereotactic radiation, may be suitable for tumors in other locations. However, apart from preservation of limb function, there are no advantages of limb-sparing surgery compared to limb amputation. The decision to pursue limb-sparing surgery is usually an owner preference as there are few medical conditions which would make limb amputation unfeasible. Furthermore, limb-sparing surgery is not widely available and the complication rate is relatively high. Following limb amputation or limb-sparing surgery, the tumor should be submitted to a veterinary pathology laboratory for assessment of tumor type and, if applicable, tumor grade (i.e., osteosarcoma and chondrosarcoma) and whether the surgical margins are free of tumor cells (for limb-sparing surgery).
Figure 6a. A photograph of a dog 6 months after a hind limb amputation for osteosarcoma.
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Figure 6b.
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Figure 7. Intraoperative photograph of a dog undergoing limb-sparing surgery. The tumor has been removed and the resected bone has been replaced with a stainless steel rod (as in this case) or a piece of sterilized bone from another dog. The rod or bone graft is held in place with a bone plate.
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Figure 8. A photograph of the dog in figure 7, 3 months after limb-sparing surgery. Cosmetic appearance and leg use are often very good after limb-sparing surgery.
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Surgery, whether limb amputation or limb-sparing, is the only necessary treatment for cats with any type of primary bone tumor and dogs with primary bone tumors other than osteosarcoma or hemangiosarcoma. The majority of primary bone tumors in cats have a low potential to metastasize and hence do not require postoperative chemotherapy. In dogs, appendicular chondrosarcoma does have the potential to metastasize (less than 25%) but metastasis usually occurs late in the course of disease and chemotherapy has not been shown to affect the metastatic rate or improve survival time. Chemotherapy is recommended for dogs with appendicular osteosarcoma as survival time is significantly improved compared to surgery alone. Chemotherapy is usually started at suture removal (about 10 to 14 days after surgery). A number of different chemotherapy protocols have been used to treat dogs with osteosarcoma and most will involve one or more of the chemotherapeutic drugs doxorubicin (or adriamycin), cisplatin, and/or carboplatin. The side-effects and costs of these drugs vary and these may be important considerations when choosing a particular chemotherapy protocol.
The treatment for primary bone tumors of the axial skeleton is dependent on the size and location of the tumor. Surgery is the main treatment for axial bone tumors (i.e., mandibulectomy or maxillectomy for jaw tumors [see oral tumors], craniectomy for skull tumors, partial vertebrectomy for vertebral tumors [Figure 9], chest wall resection and reconstruction for rib tumors, subtotal scapulectomy for scapular tumors, and hemipelvectomy for pelvic tumors). Analgesic drugs and radiation therapy can be used for palliation if surgery is not wanted or possible. Chemotherapy is rarely indicated following surgery as the metastatic potential for axial bone tumors, even osteosarcoma, is usually low. However, chemotherapy is recommended for dogs with osteosarcoma of the ribs, scapula, and pelvis due to a high metastatic rate and a biologic behavior similar to appendicular osteosarcoma. Chemotherapy should also be considered for mandibular osteosarcoma.
Figure 9. A magnetic resonance image (MRI) of a dog with an osteosarcoma (arrows) of the second thoracic vertebra. Advanced imaging provides very good information on the location, size, and potential for surgery for this tumor. This dog was treated with surgery and radiation therapy and is doing very well 160 days after surgery.
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Complications Caused By The Treatment
Limb amputation is considered the gold standard for the surgical treatment of primary bone tumors as the complication rate is very low. The most common complications, which occur in less than 5% of cases, are wound infection, wound breakdown, and accumulation of fluid underneath the surgical site (i.e., seroma formation). In contrast, the complication rate with limb-sparing surgery can be high. The most common complications are infection, implant failure, and local tumor recurrence. Implant failure is seen in 10-40% of dogs. Local recurrence of the tumor is diagnosed in 10% to 25% of dogs and this rate can be lowered with careful case selection and the use of locally-released chemotherapy implants (which are not widely available). Infection is the biggest problem with limb-sparing surgery and is seen in over 40% of dogs. Antibiotics can control but rarely cure these infections. Other options for the treatment of limb-spare-related infections include implantation of antibiotic-impregnated bone cement beads, reconstructive surgery with skin and muscle flaps, and limb amputation. Alternative limb-sparing techniques are being investigated in an effort to reduce the incidence of infection.
The aim of chemotherapy is to kill the tumor but not decrease quality of life. The majority (more than 85%) of animals will progress through their chemotherapy protocol with no to minimal problems. However, 5% to 15% of dogs may require hospitalization to treat chemotherapy-induced problems, such as bone marrow suppression, infection, and dehydration from vomiting and diarrhea. The risk and severity of chemotherapy complications or side-effects are often dependent on the drug used and should be discussed with an oncologist.
For axial bone tumors, the complications are dependent on location of the tumor and the type and extent of surgery performed to remove the tumor. The type and risk of these complications should be discussed with your surgeon.
Aftercare
The majority of dogs are able to walk unassisted within 12 to 24 hours of limb amputation. Dogs should be encouraged to walk and exercise to improve the speed of recovery. The surgical wound should be checked twice daily for signs of infection or imminent breakdown. These signs include redness, swelling, watery to purulent discharge, and pain.
After limb-sparing surgery, the limb should be lightly bandaged and the bandages should be changed every 3 days for 2 to 3 weeks. Exercise is started immediately after surgery but should be restricted to leashed walks for the first 4 weeks. Exercise is important in preventing toe contracture and minimizing swelling of the foot and toes, both of which can occur as a consequence of excising certain muscles and blood vessels during surgery.
Prognosis
For dogs with appendicular osteosarcoma, the median survival time for following palliative treatment is 90 to 150 days, with 45% of dogs alive at 6 months and 15% alive at 12 months after diagnosis. In contrast, the median survival time following curative-intent treatment is 235 to 366 days, with up to 65% of dogs alive at 12 months and 28% alive at 2 years. Alkaline phosphatase is an enzyme analyzed in the preoperative blood tests which has been shown to be associated with the duration of survival following surgery and chemotherapy. The median survival time for dogs with a normal alkaline phosphatase level is approximately 12.5 months compared to 5.5 months if alkaline phosphatase is increased. Other factors that may influence prognosis in dogs with appendicular osteosarcoma include tumor size and location and histologic grade.
For dogs with appendicular chondrosarcoma, the survival time following limb amputation alone (i.e., no chemotherapy) ranges from a median survival time of 540 days to a mean survival time of 2618 days (median was not reached because less than 50% of dogs died as a result of their tumor. Metastasis is reported in 20%-28% of dogs with chondrosarcoma, but this usually occurs late in the course of the disease and chemotherapy does not decrease the metastatic rate or improve survival time in dogs with chondrosarcoma.
Appendicular fibrosarcoma and hemangiosarcoma are rare and the prognosis is difficult to determine. However, metastasis is relatively common in dogs with hemangiosarcoma and, for this reason, survival times are generally poor with less than 10% of dogs alive at 12 months after limb amputation.
In contrast to dogs, cats with appendicular osteosarcoma have a low metastatic rate (less than 10%) and the median survival time following amputation alone is over 350 days (and up to 4 years).
The prognosis for axial bone tumors is dependent on tumor type and location. In general, osteosarcomas of the scapula and pelvis have a similar prognosis to appendicular osteosarcomas following either palliative or curative-intent treatment. The median survival times reported for osteosarcoma of the head (i.e., mandible, maxilla, and skull) are poor with most less than 12 months. The most common reason for this poor survival time is local recurrence of the tumor and not metastasis. However, the importance of aggressive surgical treatment is highlighted by the fact that most dogs are cured, with a median survival time greater than 1,500 days, if the tumor is completely resected.
Multilobular osteochondrosarcoma (or multilobular tumor of bone) is a tumor of the axial skeleton and commonly affects the skull bones. The prognosis for dogs with multilobular osteochondrosarcoma depends on whether the tumor has been completely removed and on the histologic grade. Local tumor recurrence and metastasis are more common following incomplete tumor resection. The rate of local tumor recurrence is 30%, 47%, and 78% for grade I, II, and III multilobular osteochondrosarcoma, respectively. The metastatic rate of multilobular osteochondrosarcoma is also dependent on histologic grade, with metastasis, usually to the lungs, occurring in 30%, 60%, and 78% of grade I, II, and III tumors, respectively. The overall median survival time for dogs with multilobular osteochondrosarcoma is 669 to 797 days, with a median survival time greater than 897 days for dogs with grade I tumors, 520 days for dogs with grade II tumors, and 405 days for dogs with grade III tumors. Importantly, multilobular osteochondrosarcoma is a slow growing tumor and prolonged survival after diagnosis of metastatic disease is common (median, 239 days).
Rib osteosarcoma is an aggressive and often tumor. Metastasis is diagnosed at the time of death in 100% of dogs with osteosarcoma, 67% of dogs with hemangiosarcoma, and up to 100% of dogs with fibrosarcoma. Factors which influence prognosis in dogs with rib tumors include tumor type and completeness of surgical resection. Local recurrence of a rib tumor is over 5 times more likely if the rib tumor was not completely resected. The median survival time for dogs with rib osteosarcoma is 90 days with surgery alone and 240-290 days if surgery is combined with chemotherapy. In comparison, the median survival time for dogs with rib chondrosarcoma is 1,080 to greater than 3,750 days with surgery alone. The prognosis for dogs with vertebral tumors is usually poor. Regardless of tumor type, the median survival time for malignant vertebral tumors is 135 days. Tumor type, tumor location, and postoperative treatment (i.e., chemotherapy or radiation therapy) do not improve survival time. However, using guidelines employed by human neurosurgeons, there are anecdotal reports of prolonged survival following aggressive surgical resection, with or without postoperative radiation therapy.
—Julius Liptak, BVSc, MVSC
Diplomate ACVS
Posted 8/16/2004
Updated 5/15/2008 by Dr. Liptak
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